Following “The War to End All Wars,” many Americans wanted to beat their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks[1], or at least put the memory of war under mothballs. The United States government systematically destroyed acres of airplanes and tons of tanks. As the roaring twenties turned into the depressing thirties, Americans turned inward to cope with their immediate problems, only occasionally looking outward to ask a brother if he could spare a dime.[2]

But events in Europe and Asia began clamoring and could no longer be ignored. Nazi Germany was facing only nominal resistance establishing the Third Reich throughout Europe, Japan was attempting to conquer China, and Italy had dreams of another Roman Empire surrounding the Mediterranean Sea.

A series of Gallup polls revealed the level that Americans wanted to become involved with (or even cared about) these far off events. A poll conducted in 1936 indicated that only one out of twenty Americans were in favor of deeper involvement for the United States in European and Asian affairs. Notably, even a hero such as Charles Lindbergh called involvement in these matters a conspiracy of FDR and big business.[3]

However, in September 1940, the U.S. government conducted the first peace time draft in its history, due to the escalating crisis overseas. The response of the American people was an overwhelming thud of ignorance and indifference to the cause. As William Allen White, a Kansas newspaper editor, reported to Lowell Mellett, a White House advisor, the new draftees “haven't the slightest enthusiasm for this war or this cause. They are not grouchy, they are not mutinous, they just don't give a tinkers dam[n].”[4] An Army Morale Branch was formed, but this failed to lift spirits due to the “deadly effects of prepared lectures indifferently read to bored troops.”[5] These were the words of a frustrated Army Chief of Staff, General George C. Marshall. The army remained concerned about troop morale and civilian indifference even after the declared “day that will live in infamy.”[6]

It was in this setting that in February 1942, three months after the infamous December 7^th, General Marshall called Major Frank Capra into his office in the Pentagon. Forty-five-year-old Frank Capra was already a successful filmmaker, auteur of such films as It's a Wonderful Life and Mr. Smith Goes to Washington. Now he was serving as an officer in the U.S. Army Signal Corps.

General Marshall explained that we were trying to

make soldiers out of boys who had never seen a gun. They were being uprooted from civilian life and thrown into Army camps. And the reason why was hazy in their minds. Germany and Japan... [have] highly motivated professional armies. [They] have something to fight and die for-- victory for the superman; establishing the new age of the superstate. How can we counter their superman incentive? Will young freewheeling American boys take the iron discipline of wartime training? Can they shake off... boredom and homesickness?... Yes! If... they are given answers to why they are in uniform, and if the answers are worth fighting and dying for. And that, Capra, is our job, and your job. To win this war we must win the battle for men's minds. Films are the answer, and you are the answer to such films. I want to... make a series of documented, factual-information films-- the first in our history-- that will explain to our boys in the Army why we are fighting, and the principles for which we are fighting.[7]

Shortly after this commission, Capra saw Leni Riefenstahl's terrifying motion picture, Triumph of the Will, a film produced by the German government.

Its message was as blunt and brutal as a lead pipe: We, the Herrenvolk, are the invincible gods! Triumph of the Will fired no gun, dropped no bombs. But as a psychological weapon aimed at destroying the will to resist, it was just as lethal. That film paralyzed the will of Austria, Czechoslovakia, Scandinavia, and France. How could I counterattack against [it]?[8]

Eight months after General Marshall declared his intentions to Frank Capra, Prelude to War was released as the first in a seven part series entitled Why We Fight. This documentary series was designed to act as the U.S. War Department's counterattack in the battle for men's minds. Why We Fight was essentially successful in its purpose, while many of the themes and elements of the film series revealed much about the American political culture of the 1940's.

As with any piece of art specifically designed for propaganda, Why We Fight often provided simple answers to rather complex issues. This approach may have made the political world appear figuratively as black and white as the film it was printed on. The audience was asked to decide between systems of a free people versus a regimented people, freedom vs. slavery, civilization vs. barbarism, and good vs. evil. The evil of three totalitarian rulers attempting to take over the world was contrasted with what good American boys could do to protect their way of life and their homeland. Several of these films showed how the average citizen could fight for what was right and win against a hardened and amoral professional soldier. This message seemed aimed particularly at “boys who had never seen a gun, who were uprooted from civilian life and thrown into Army camps.”[9] As is true with much propaganda, the enemy was stereotyped and dehumanized. The first film described “Japs” as “Hitler's buck-toothed pals,” and German troops were mechanized into the “Nazi War Machine.”

Capra displayed his artful skill of filmmaking and propaganda with several methods. An effective tool was the presentation of visual incongruities, such as Hitler driving by the Eiffel Tower on the vacant streets of Paris, claiming that all this was his. This was plainly not the Paris with which many of the audience members were familiar, and Hitler seemed rather silly in staking such a claim. Another effective device was the narration of the series, which was tough, clipped, and masculine. Defending your country was a manly duty. Each film was packed with a strong message, with video and audio imagery designed to inspire men to battle.

Capra described the purpose of each of the seven films in these words:

1. Prelude to War-- presenting a general picture of the two worlds; the slave and the free, and the rise of totalitarian militarism from Japan's conquest of Manchuria to Mussolini's conquest of Ethiopia.

2. The Nazis Strike-- Hitler rises. Imposes Nazi dictatorship on Germany. Goose-steps into Rhineland and Austria. Threatens war unless given Czechoslovakia. Appeasers oblige. Hitler invades Poland. Curtain rises on the tragedy of the century-- World War II.

3. Divide and Conquer-- Hitler occupies Denmark and Norway, outflanks Maginot Line, drives British Army into North Sea, forces surrender of France.

4. Battle of Britain-- showing the gallant and victorious defense of Britain by Royal Air Force, at a time when shattered but unbeaten British were only people fighting Nazis.

5. Battle of Russia-- History of Russia; people, size, resources, wars. Death struggle against Nazi armies at gates of Moscow and Leningrad. At Stalingrad, Nazis put through meat grinder.

6. Battle of China-- Japan's warlords commit total effort to conquest of China. Once conquered, Japan would use China's manpower for the conquest of all Asia.

7. War Comes to America-- Dealt with who, what where, why, and how we came to be the U.S.A.-- the oldest major democratic republic still living under its original constitution. But the heart of the film dealt with the depth and variety of emotions with which Americans reacted to the traumatic events in Europe and Asia. How our convictions slowly changed from total non-involvement to total commitment as we realized that loss of freedom anywhere increased the danger to our own freedom. This last film was, and still is, one of the most graphic visual histories of the United States ever made.[10]

Battle of Britain, Battle of Russia, and Battle of China formed something of a trilogy. These three films attempted to familiarize Americans with their new friends across the ocean. A common theme of all three focused on how ordinary people can contribute to the defending of one’s nation from an aggressively invading alien power. However, often these films glossed over glaring inconsistencies and even atrocities of our potential allies in order to unite its audience in support of these countries. Ironically, while these films purportedly celebrated individuality and freedom, they continued to stereotype all people of certain nationalities to possess certain unique traits seemingly specific to that nationality. Germans were vicious, Japanese were sly, and Italians just wanted to follow the Germans’ lead in taking over the world. Although many Americans were of German, Japanese, or Italian descent (including Italian-American Frank Capra), these films taught its American audience that they should realize that it was the British, Russian, and Chinese people who had the cause which was just.

Why should Americans fight for Britain? Actually, of the three primary countries, Britain seemed the easiest to ally Americans with. The United States had always been partial to Anglophilia, as they traced their heritage there. Britain was the mother country from whom Americans declared their independence, yet the umbilical cord was never completely severed. The United States and Great Britain spoke the same language and have historically held a parallel political outlook on the world.

The film The Battle of Britain (produced 1943) introduced a few more reasons for support of the British war effort. One reason was that as an island in the Atlantic, Britain was the last stand before the Nazis continued west to attack the United States. If Americans defended Britain now, they wouldn’t have to defend their own soil later. To illustrate this point, Capra utilized the considerable talents of Walt Disney and his animation staff. Nazi movements were depicted as a creeping black slime oozing and taking over territory, leaving their swastikas wherever they went. This animation was typical in all seven films, not only clearly showing troop movements but playing a part in the propaganda as well. There was a scene showing a crate of war supplies bound for Britain that was stamped “Made in USA,” representing the groundswell of support that Americans already were feeling for the Brits before the United States officially entered the war.

There was a significant amount of footage used getting to know the British people. Brits worked and played just like Americans did. Women pitched in too, wherever they could help. They often completed tasks as well as men, or at least adequately until the men came home from the war. (Capra later displayed the gender bias of the time in his autobiography, writing of an evening with colleagues, “While the wives washed the dishes, the four of us... talked about [the war]”).[11]

The film humanized the British people by allowing the audience time to get to know them. Conversely, no mention was made of German families or their daily life. The war was “the British people versus the German [faceless] government.” The only German face the audience really got to know was Hitler's.

A constant message in this film was that the German mind never understood the true spirit of democracy and a free people. Years of regimentation left German “voices hoarse from yelling ‘Heil Hitler’” and a resultant numbing of minds. The film suggested that as the Nazis grew frustrated with the spirited British people, they turned to animal instincts. “Gone is any pretense of military tactics, this was just savage destruction,” as the Nazis bombed London. Yet, still there were ordinary folks in the air raid shelters, their spirits still high, their upper lips still stiff, while all hell was breaking loose outside. The Nazis could bomb all they wanted, but they could not take away the inner peace of a righteous people. This enraged Goering, as the ominous music emphasized how evil this madman was.

Great British buildings and monuments, all well-known to the audience and thus a part of their collective heritage, were mercilessly bombed, including Buckingham Palace. Similarly, “Auld Lang Syne,” a sad song unmistakably British yet one Americans knew and sang, was played as a cemetery was smashed. This film was not above putting words into German thoughts. “Make them cry for mercy,” was read as a voice-over with a German accent.

As a final assault to any sense of decency, Hitler attacked on Christmas. A day when there should be peace on earth and good will toward men, a day when little British and American children should have been excitedly running down the stairs to see what awaited them under the tree, Hitler proved to be the ultimate grinch. Yet still British spirits did not sag. “Hitler could kill them, but damned if he could lick them.” This was what happened when a regimented people met a free people. As the film closed, British jets flew in a "V" formation, which segued into a large "V" on the screen, for Victory for the British. The omnipresent stirring patriotic music rose up to swelled emotions. The music throughout the series was composed, arranged, conducted, and recorded by well-known composer Alfred Newman free of charge for the cause. There were several other Hollywood heavy hitters beside Capra, Disney, and Newman who would patriotically contribute anonymously to these “War Department” productions.

Farther away geographically and politically at this time was the Soviet Union, or “Russia” as the country was called throughout the series. The Battle of Russia (produced 1944) was noteworthy for what it did not portray as much as for what it did. “Russia” may have evoked romantic images of bearded men with fur hats doing a funny kicking dance in the snow. The “Soviet Union” may have been a nasty reminder that this country was now communist, had annexed countries that were not Russia, and whose government had purged its countryside of anyone dissident to the cause. The massive number of killings may have actually exceeded that of the Nazi Holocaust. In fact, Capra may have gone further in his idealizing the Russians than the U.S. was comfortable with. Early in the project, seven of Capra's writers were dismissed after their outlines of scripts were “larded with communist propaganda.”[12] Then, after the release of the film, Capra was temporarily under military arrest for being photographed in front of the Soviet embassy. This was certainly a tenuous alliance. Several years later, as temperatures were dropping in the Cold War, this film was withdrawn from circulation in the United States, while it enjoyed many joyous viewings in the Soviet Union.

The Battle of Russia established that for 700 years, Russia had been defending itself from the German Teutonic knights. Russia was rich and diverse in both resources and culture, and the jealous Germans had dreams of domination that were handed down from generation to generation (it was in their blood). Yet the Russians always heroically negated German advances.

This time, the Russians outsmarted “Hitler's War Machine” by an ingenious plan of bending but not breaking, giving up land while keeping its own strength up with reinforcements. The film pointed out that “Generals may win campaigns, but people win wars and the Nazis forgot that.” Every Russian citizen was involved in a way reminiscent of America’s own minutemen. Russians were even driven to scorch their own land as they retreated, sacrificing what they had built so as to not nourish the parasitic Nazis.

Due to the length of this particular film, it was divided into two parts. The second part opened with scenes from the Russian Orthodox Church of faithful Russians praying. There was no mention here that communist dogma dictated that religion was the opiate of the masses and should be done away.

The next scenes showed Nazis getting what they deserved when the Russians fought back during a good cold Russian winter. Russian soldiers came back to a hero's welcome, with close-ups of the joyous faces of wives and mothers. However, this was intercut with scenes of Tchaikovsky's home-- musical scores and memories scattered about-- ruined by Germans. Leo Tolstoy's home was destroyed as well; the Germans seemingly had no reverence for the arts which lifted up all of mankind.

What followed were among the most pathetic scenes in this entire series. It looked like parents returning to find their small children massacred, lifeless in the snow. It showed young girls, probably 10-14 years old, who had apparently just been raped, as they cried and clutched their bodies. It showed any who resisted dangling in the wind, hanging from a noose. What kind of evil people were these Nazis? Here was a universal issue worth fighting for, as the Russians took a sacred pledge to defend their homes, women and children. With this oath, the Russians angrily shattered the Nazi invincibility that was so evident in Triumph of the Will.

Several Russian cities were featured. One of these was Leningrad. There was some mention of Vladimir Lenin. The film showed his heroic statue as he was the leader of a revolution. There was no mention what that revolution was for. The United States got its start from a revolution; there's something patriotic about the word. Leningrad was bombed, and a scene from the Leningrad Zoo showed a poor elephant (called “Dumbo” by the narrator) as another innocent victim.

The Russians continued to be a hardy and brave people. Temperatures dropped to -30°, citizens walked to work, dug holes in the streets to get water, and received their daily bread, which was a ration of four ounces. The Germans continued to mercilessly shell this frozen city, yet the citizens worked only harder as they were shelled. There was an interesting juxtaposition of scenes of shelling and Russians working. Disney's maps effectively showed Leningrad surrounded by Nazi occupation. Yet the heroes of Leningrad tirelessly built a railroad to bring in food and to ship out wounded children to hospitals in more friendly territory. Finally, due to Russian tenacity, German bodies were unearthed in flooding and humiliated Nazi soldiers marched dejectedly through the town as captured prisoners of war. This was not the way they had hoped to march into town.

Stalingrad was also featured in the film. Not much was mentioned about the leader who inspired that place name. Probably the less said, the better. However, the narrator did note that Stalingrad “was the pride of this generation’s Russians, as it was built in their time.”

Again, Russian determination was portrayed, as the people of the Caucasus (the mountain people) joined in the fight. The people were successful in regaining their own city, inch by inch. Following this victory, “battle-hardened soldiers became emotion-filled children” when Stalingrad was saved. Joyous music played in the background. Christmas was Christmas again for the children of Russia. A Russian woman greeted the audience with a “Happy New Year.” Meanwhile at the front they said, “Happy New Year—fire!” as the war raged on. The latest in Russian weaponry was shown off, including flame throwers and missile launchers. One of the last scenes of the film depicted a statue of children playing. The statue was scarred, but still standing in Stalingrad. The Nazi generals surrendered, now even they were afraid of Hitler. The closing scene prominently featured the American flag standing for the defense of this great land.

As Germany was to Russia, Japan was to China. The Battle of China (produced 1944) told the story of another small country taking on the biggest country in its region and attempting to claim it as its own. And like the Nazis attacking Britain, if Japan conquered China that would be one step closer to attacking the U.S., if the Tanaka Plan were to be followed systematically. So defend China now, or defend the U.S. later.

The film explained a trifold reason that Japan wanted China. First, China was history. Chinese civilization dated back over 4,000 years. That was older than the pyramids of Egypt. Second, China was land. More land than the United States, and rich in resources. Third, China was people. They had 1/5 of the world's population.

But there was another purpose in producing this film. The Battle of China also helped explain a country that was extremely foreign to American GI's. Their writing looked funny, their people spoke funny, and their food tasted funny. So this film spent some time acquainting the viewers with the wonderful world of Chinese culture. The film rhetorically asked, “What kind of people are they?” This question was repeatedly answered with, “They are that sort of people.” Again, national characteristics outweighed individual differences, despite the freedom and individual differences Americans were supposedly fighting for. Moveable type, the compass, astronomy, porcelain, they were that sort of people. The Chinese did not partake in offensive wars. Sure, they invented gunpowder, but that was for fun-loving fireworks, not weapons. They were that sort of people. There was no mention in this film of the word “communism.” Support for this movement had already begun, and China would be communist within five years. Perhaps because of this issue, this film was not released to the general public.

Sun Yat Sen, as a leader from the 1911 revolution, was paralleled closely with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Americans knew how upright and honest those people were, so Sun Yat Sen must be one of the good guys. Passing mention was given to the controversial Chiang Kai-shek. He was portrayed as continuing Sun Yat Sen's vision of freedom.

Meanwhile, across the Sea of Japan, the Japanese “God-Emperor and his fanatic warlords aimed to build their military machine,” and “ride the backs of the Chinese workhorse to world conquest.” Some of this propaganda language was getting thicker than black strap molasses.

In a manner similar to the Nazis, Japs slaughtered innocent civilian Chinese with bombs from the air. The Japs actually “introduced the world to a new kind of war, with deliberate mass murder.” Again, similar to that scene in Russia, there was a rather grisly scene of massacre and rape of the Chinese, including children. The Japs planned to tear the bloody heart out of the Chinese with their bare hands. Not only that, but the blood-crazed Japs sunk an American war ship in China. “Officially” they apologized, but the American audience knew how far they could trust those shifty- eyed people.

As in Russia and Britain (and hopefully by now the U.S.), unity of purpose among the Chinese citizens was sparked. As in Russia, there began a great mass migration, taking advantage of their wide expanse of land, and burning bridges and crops behind them. Music swelled as their trail was moistened by their tears and sweat, heading west for freedom.

The Chinese did the best they could with what they had. Their slow and obsolete biplanes made a futile attempt to defend against the sleek Japanese planes. This was a symbol of the Chinese indomitable spirit (a constant theme in this series). Finally, the United States Air Force came to their aid, complete with “Wild Blue Yonder” theme music.

The Chinese needed a supply line to their new home out west, and built the long road with their bare hands. Even children chipped in (with a scene of a child hammering on a rock). The Burma Road was completed in less than 12 months, whereas experts predicted it would take 6-7 years with modern machinery. This was the Chinese spirit. This could be contrasted to the Japanese trying to rebuild the trails to follow the Chinese westward. They enslaved people to do their work (with a scene of an overseer). Again, ordinary folks, peaceful farmers, could turn into deadly warriors or guerrillas if the cause was just.

Scenes of the attack on Pearl Harbor reminded the audience that as cruel as the Nazis were, it was the Japs who attacked us. This was the business of the United States. Other possible reasons for relevance were explained-- there was an American who was the Chief of Staff of all Chinese forces, and there were many in the Chinese Air Force who were trained in various bases in the United States. Here the oldest (China) and the youngest (USA) of the world's great nations (together with the British), fought side by side in a struggle as old as China herself: freedom vs. slavery, civilization vs. barbarism, and good vs. evil. Upon their victory was the future of mankind. What could be a cause more just?

Why We Fight familiarized us with the people of various areas around the world, and the need to defend certain inalienable rights basic to the human condition. It gave GI's a reason why, and something to fight and die for. General George C. Marshall and President Franklin Delano Roosevelt were struck with how powerfully the message was delivered. President Roosevelt felt it was imperative that the entire nation see it, not just the fighting men, as really this was the civilian's cause. Although there was some obvious manipulation, post-production editing of film, and propagandist bombast, many of the images were stark and powerful. This series did help unite an uninterested, uninvolved American populace toward the stance of defending any friend and opposing any foe to freedom.